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1National Cancer Center Graduate School of Cancer Science and Policy, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Korea
2Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, Korea
© 2023, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (2021R1A2C2008439 and 2021R1A6A3A01087058).
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency |
Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/756, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.6 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.24, 0.57) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [11] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.17, 0.79) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Fruits and vegetables (7 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.83 (0.35, 1.98) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Fruits | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.10 (0.55, 2.22) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Vegetables | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | 0.68 (0.27, 1.68) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.41, 0.85) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Vegetables | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.96 (0.68, 1.34) | ||||||
Fresh vegetables | Case-control, 1997-2003 | 421/632, mean age: 59.6, men: 65.5 | 84-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.92 (0.72, 1.17) | Chungbuk and Eulji University Hospital | 2005 [16] |
Fruits | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | >6 vs. <4/wk (reference) | OR | 0.30 (0.10, 0.70) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Raw vegetables | >5 vs. <3/wk (reference) | 0.20 (0.10, 0.50) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.67 (0.33, 1.39) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Vegetables | 0.64 (0.31, 1.32) | |||||||
Green vegetables | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.24 (0.14, 0.41) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Dietary carotenoids (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 286/286, mean age: 56.8, men: 66.4 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.97 (0.60, 1.56) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [20] |
Dietary total carotenoids | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.55, 1.15) | National Cancer Center | 2018 [21] |
Dietary α-carotene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 1.00 (0.70, 1.41) | ||||||
Dietary β-carotene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.22) | ||||||
Dietary β-cryptoxanthin | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.10) | ||||||
Dietary lutein/zeaxanthin | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.91 (0.64, 1.30) | ||||||
Dietary lycopene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.60 (0.42, 0.85) | ||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.35 (0.16, 0.75) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary vitamin C (4 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 286/286, mean age: 56.8, men: 66.4 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.84 (0.52, 1.36) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [20] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.50, 1.00) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.27, 1.12) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 295/295, mean age: 49.3, men: 70.2 | 84-item FFQ, amount | >93.3 vs. ≤93.3 mg/day (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.52, 1.21) | Seoul National University Hospital and Asan Medical Center | 2005 [22] |
Dietary isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.70 (0.49, 1.00) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [23] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (5 studies) | ||||||||
Meat | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 0.88 (0.30, 2.60) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Meat | Cohort, 1996-1997, follow-up: 6-7 | 12,393/2,235,736, most frequent age range: 50-59, men: 63.2 | A single question, frequency | ≥4 vs. ≤1/wk | HR | 0.99 (0.93, 1.07) | Korean Health Insurance Cooperation | 2010 [24] |
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 1.16 (0.56, 2.41) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Total beef | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.67 (0.86, 3.27) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Total pork | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.94 (0.45, 1.97) | ||||||
Cooked beef | Case-control, 2000 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.40 (0.20, 0.80) | Asan Medical Center | 2002 [25] |
Grilled meat and fish (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fried meat and fish | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.73 (0.36, 1.48) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Charcoal grilled beef | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 2.11 (1.17, 3.82) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Charcoal grilled beef and pork | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.58 (0.80, 3.10) | ||||||
Fish (3 studies) | ||||||||
Fresh fish | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.46 (0.65, 3.28) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Raw fish | Case-control, 1997-2001 | 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.68 (0.46, 1.01) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Slices of raw fish | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.43 (0.04, 4.81) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Dairy products (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dairy product | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.30 (0.83, 2.06) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Dairy product | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.68 (0.34, 1.36) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Dietary iron (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary total iron | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 374/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.6 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.65 (0.45, 0.94) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [27] |
Dietary non-heme iron | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.64 (0.44, 0.92) | ||||||
Dietary heme iron | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.81 (0.56, 1.17) | ||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.77 (0.59, 1.02) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.49 (0.24, 1.01) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary calcium (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.43 (0.21, 0.90) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables and kimchi (7 studies) | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 307/307, mean age: 56.6, men: 67.1 | 103/116-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.52, 1.24) | Chungnam National and Hanyang University Hospital | 2021 [29] |
Pickled vegetables | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 10.3 | 81/4,432, mean age: 58.1, men: 38.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | Per 40 g/day increment | RR | 0.95 (0.80, 1.13) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2020 [30] |
Korean cabbage kimchi | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.11 (0.80, 1.55) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Radish kimchi | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.80 (0.57, 1.12) | ||||||
Chonggak kimchi | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.81 (0.58, 1.13) | ||||||
Kimchi | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 3.27 (2.44, 4.37) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥2 vs. <2/day (reference) | OR | 1.90 (1.30, 2.80) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1997-2001 | men: 61.9 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.51 (1.12, 2.44) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Baiechu kimchi | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.50 (0.25, 1.01) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Baiechu kimchi stew | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.62 (0.29, 1.35) | ||||||
Kkakduki | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.78 (0.85, 3.73) | ||||||
Dongchimi | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.96 (1.01, 3.83) | ||||||
Salted seafood and fish (4 studies) | ||||||||
Salted fish | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 12.9 | 296/11,026 mean age: 57.4, men: 39.1 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | Per 60 g/day increment | RR | 1.01 (0.63, 1.61) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2020 [30] |
Salt-fermented fish | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 2.40 (1.00, 5.70) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Salted seafood | Case-control, 1997-2001 | 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.67 (0.45, 1.00) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Salted fish and shellfish | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.78 (0.39, 1.56) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Fermented soy products (4 studies) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.08 (0.77, 1.51) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [23] |
Soybean paste | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 2.01 (0.52, 8.50) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Soybean paste | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.63 (1.24, 2.14) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Soybean paste stew | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5; men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 2.73 (1.34, 5.56) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Sodium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 2.34 (1.05, 5.19) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Sodium | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 2.30 (1.61, 3.30) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Sodium | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.28, 1.11) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (2 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 976/161,244, mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Coffee | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 0.94 (0.63, 1.41) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Tea (2 studies) | ||||||||
Citrus tea | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.83 (0.59, 1.18) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Tea | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.32 (0.06, 1.61) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (3 studies) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: Westernized | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.50, 1.16) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [32] |
Prudent | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.58 (0.41, 0.84) | ||||||
Index-based: hydrophilic ORAC | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.39, 0.82) | National Cancer Center | 2020 [33] |
Lipophilic ORAC | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.66 (0.45, 0.95) | ||||||
Total phenolics | 0.57 (0.39, 0.83) | |||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 388/776, mean age: 53.3, men: 64.2 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.63 (1.15, 2.29) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [34] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 307/307, mean age: 56.6, men: 67.1 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.88 (1.18, 2.97) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [35] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.51 (1.53, 4.12) | ||||||
Saturated fat (1 study) | ||||||||
Saturated fat | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.75 (0.37, 1.53) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.26, 1.23) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency |
Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.08, 0.56) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.20 (0.08, 0.51) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Fruits and vegetables (6 studies) | ||||||||
Total fruit and vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.60 (0.45, 0.79) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [38] |
Total fruit | 0.77 (0.58, 1.02) | |||||||
Total vegetables | 0.48 (0.36, 0.64) | |||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1(reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.27, 1.42) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Vegetables | 0.54 (0.23, 1.28) | |||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.85 (0.38, 1.92) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Fruits | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.38 (0.20, 0.74) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Vegetables | 0.30 (0.15, 0.62) | |||||||
Fruits 1 | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Men) 86/899, mean age: 46.3 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.22, 1.27) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fruits 2 | 0.36 (0.16, 0.84) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.97 (0.40, 2.35) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (fresh) | 1.33 (0.39, 4.52) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.75 (0.33, 1.71) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.92 (0.38, 2.23) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.64 (0.19, 2.10) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.65 (0.19, 2.16) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.84 (0.33, 2.18) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.45 (0.15, 1.39) | |||||||
Fruits 1 | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Women) 76/1,677, mean age: 47.2 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.13 (0.49, 2.61) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fruits 2 | 1.14 (0.54, 2.40) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.45 (0.15, 1.36) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.89 (0.31, 2.57) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.80 (0.30, 2.11) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (boiling) | 1.17 (0.49, 2.81) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.52 (0.11, 2.35) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.97 (0.28, 3.35) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.46 (0.18, 1.16) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.71 (0.27, 1.83) | |||||||
Vegetables | Case-control | 125/247, mean age: 56.5, men: 63.0 | Not specified, frequency | High vs. low (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.49, 1.31) | Ilsan-Paik Hospital | 2003 [40] |
Dietary carotenoids (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary lutein/zeaxanthin | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.25 (0.18, 0.36) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [41] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.17, 1.87) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary carotene | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.12 (0.06, 0.28) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary vitamin C (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.38 (0.14, 1.05) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 ((reference) | OR | 0.18 (0.08, 0.40) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary Isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.61 (0.46, 0.81) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [42] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (8 studies) | ||||||||
Meat | Cohort, 1996-1997, follow-up: 6.0-7.0 | 6444/2,241,685, most frequent age range: 40-49, men: 36.8 | A single question, frequency | ≥4 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | HR | 1.23 (1.13, 1.35) | Korean Health Insurance Corporation | 2011 [43] |
Meat | Case-control, 2003-2005 | 80/75, mean age: 57.1, men: 52.0 | A single question, frequency | ≥3/wk vs. none (reference) | OR | 1.7 (0.70, 4.20) | Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2006 [44] |
Meat | Case-control | 125/247, mean age: 56.5, men: 63.0 | Not specified, frequency | >2 vs. <2/wk (reference) | OR | 1.72 (1.12, 2.76) | Ilsan-Paik Hospital | 2003 [40] |
Red meat | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 703/1,406, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥100 vs. <100 g/day (reference) | OR | 0.66 (0.47, 0.92) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [45] |
Processed meat | ≥50 vs. <50 g/day (reference) | 0.78 (0.16, 3.93) | ||||||
Red meat | Case-control, 1995-2004 | 971/658, mean age: 58.2, men: 56.2 | 94-item FFQ, frequency | ≥5 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.29 (0.83, 2.01) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2019 [46] |
Red meat | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 7.33 (2.98, 18.06) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 1.31 (0.60, 2.61) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Beef | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.30, 1.28) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Pork | 1.70 (0.80, 3.58) | |||||||
Fish (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fish | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.05 (0.45, 2.40) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Fish | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1(reference) | OR | 2.01 (0.97, 4.18) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Anchovy | 0.35 (0.17, 0.74) | |||||||
Dairy products (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dairy | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 703/1,406, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥400 vs. <400 g/day (reference) | OR | 2.23 (1.53, 3.25) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [45] |
Milk and dairy product | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) OR 2.42 (1.10, 5.31) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] | ||
Milk | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.33 (0.18, 0.64) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] | |
Dietary iron (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.49 (0.18, 1.30) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary calcium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Cohort, 2004-2013 mean follow-up: 5.4 | 635/118,866, mean age: 52.7, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Per 200 g/day | HR | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [47] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Men) 624/1,872, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.16 (0.11, 0.24) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [48] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Women) 298/894, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.16 (0.09, 0.29) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [48] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.18 (0.07, 0.42) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Kimchi (2 studies) | ||||||||
Kimchi | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.32 (0.15, 0.65) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Men) 86/899, mean age: 46.3 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.31 (0.72, 2.38) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Women) 76/1,677, mean age: 47.2 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.99 (0.59, 1.68) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fermented soy products (1 study) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Men) 624/1,872, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.82 (1.35, 2.46) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [49] |
(Women) 298/894, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.22 (0.77, 1.91) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [49] | ||
Sodium (2 studies) | ||||||||
Sodium | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.39, 2.32) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 1.52 (0.75, 3.08) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (2 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | ≥3 cups/day vs. none (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.14, 0.33) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [50] |
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 521/161,699, mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.39, 0.72) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Tea (1 study) | ||||||||
Green tea | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 922/1,820, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.46, 0.76) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [51] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (5 studies) | ||||||||
Index-based: DIS | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 919/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 3.00 (2.19, 4.10) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [52] |
Index-based: EDIH | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.14 (0.81, 1.60) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [53] |
EDIR | 3.32 (2.32, 4.74) | |||||||
RRR: CRP-related pattern | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 695/1,846, mean age: 56.2, men: 67.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 9.98 (6.81, 14.62) | National Cancer Center | 2018 [54] |
Factor analysis: traditional diet | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.35 (0.27, 0.46) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [55] |
Westernized diet | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.35 (1.78, 3.09) | ||||||
Prudent diet | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.37 (0.28, 0.48) | ||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.16 (1.71, 2.73) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [56] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 695/1,401, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 5.44 (3.85, 7.68) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [57] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 4.43 (3.18, 6.15) | ||||||
Saturated fat (2 studies) | ||||||||
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.96 (1.24, 7.04) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.46 (0.21, 0.99) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.65 (0.31, 1.35) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary vitamin D (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin D | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.37, 1.67) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference number; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DR, dietary record; DIS, dietary inflammation score; EDIH, empirical dietary index for hyperinsulinemia; EDIR, empirical dietary index for insulin resistance; RRR, reduced rank regression; DII, dietary inflammatory index; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of women | Diet assessment, amount or frequency |
Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.14, 0.99) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.61 (0.31, 2.06) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Fruits and vegetables (5 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1/day vs. ≤4-6/wk (reference) | HR | 1.22 (0.76, 1.97) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Light-colored vegetables | ≥4-6 vs. ≤2-3/wk (reference) | 0.87 (0.54, 1.38) | ||||||
Green-yellow vegetables | ≥1/day vs. ≤4-6/wk (reference) | 1.46 (0.91, 2.33) | ||||||
Total fruit and vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.34 (0.19, 0.62) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [61] |
Fruits | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.75 (0.44, 1.28) | ||||||
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.22 (0.12, 0.41) | ||||||
Non-pickled vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.09 (0.05, 0.18) | ||||||
Total fruit | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.52, 1.32) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Citrus fruit | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.74 (0.40, 1.28) | ||||||
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.76 (0.46, 1.23) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.15, 0.90) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Green-yellow color vegetables | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.83 (0.26, 2.68) | ||||||
Light color vegetables | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.58 (0.22, 1.53) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | OR | 0.70 (0.60, 0.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Green vegetables | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | 0.60 (0.40, 1.00) | ||||||
White vegetables | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | 1.10 (0.80, 1.50) | ||||||
Dietary carotenoids (4 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.53, 1.20) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Per 500 ug/day | OR | 1.01 (0.98, 1.05) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [66] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.33. 1.95) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.42 (0.25, 0.89) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary vitamin C (5 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >100 vs. ≤100 mg/day (reference) | HR | 0.95 (0.71, 1.26) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.07 (0.72, 1.60) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Per 10 mg/day | OR | 1.01 (0.99, 1.04) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [66] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.30, 1.93) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.19, 0.84) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.81 (0.48, 1.38) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [69] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (4 studies) | ||||||||
Low fat meat | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.64 (0.38, 1.09) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
High fat meat | 2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.79 (0.40, 1.53) | ||||||
Meat | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.50 (1.20, 1.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Grilled meat | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/mo (reference) | HR | 1.77 (1.09, 2.85) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Grill beef rib | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.96 (0.63, 2.02) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Bulgogi | 1.12 (0.73, 2.38) | |||||||
Grilled pork | 1.21 (0.89, 2.21) | |||||||
Grilled pork belly | 1.11 (0.81, 2.15) | |||||||
Pork cutlet | 0.91 (0.78, 2.61) | |||||||
Grilled ham | 0.87 (0.71, 2.18) | |||||||
Fish (5 studies) | ||||||||
Bony fish | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | HR | 1.14 (0.71, 1.83) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Total fish | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.32, 0.96) | National Cancer Center | 2009 [70] |
Lean fish | 1.21 (0.72, 2.04) | |||||||
Fatty fish | 0.23 (0.13, 0.42) | |||||||
White flesh fish | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.64 (0.52–5.16) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Blue flesh fish | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 1.32 (0.74, 2.36) | ||||||
Fish | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.50 (1.20, 1.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Fish meat | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.87, 2.44) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Raw croaker | 0.51 (0.35, 1.19) | |||||||
Grilled yellow croaker | 0.89 (0.21, 1.93) | |||||||
Tuna canned | 0.85 (0.39, 1.39) | |||||||
Dairy products (5 studies) | ||||||||
Milk | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 6.3 | 359/77,961, mean age: 52.3, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/day vs. <1/wk (reference) | HR | 0.78 (0.59, 1.04) | KoGES-HEXA Gem | 2020 [71] |
Dairy food | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥4-6 vs. ≤2-3/wk (reference) | HR | 1.32 (0.83, 2.11) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Milk, yogurt | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.19 (0.52, 2.70) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Milk | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | OR | 0.90 (0.80, 1.20) | Seoul University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Milk | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.51 (0.34, 2.20) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Yogurt | 1.05 (0.39, 2.19) | |||||||
Cheese | 0.51 (0.43, 2.23) | |||||||
Dietary iron (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >14 vs. ≤14 mg/day (reference) for 30-49 yr, >8 vs. ≤8 mg/day (reference) for 50-74 yr, and >7 vs. ≤7 mg/day (reference) for ≥75 yr | HR | 0.74 (0.52, 1.06) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.27, 2.16) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.53, 1.72) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Dietary calcium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >700 vs. ≤700 mg/day (reference) for 30-49 yr, >800 vs. ≤800 mg/day (reference) for ≥50 yr | HR | 1.12 (0.72, 1.76) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.33 (0.13, 0.86) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.85 (0.27, 1.30) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables and Kimchi (2 studies) | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 2.47 (1.45, 4.21) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [61] |
Cabbage kimchi | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.83 (0.57, 1.59) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Radish kimchi | 0.77 (0.45, 1.27) | |||||||
Salted vegetables and fish (1 study) | ||||||||
Salted vegetables and seafood | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2 vs. ≤1/day (reference) | HR | 0.98 (0.61, 1.58) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Fermented soy products (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.31 (0.17, 0.56) | National Cancer Center Hanyang and | 2010 [69] |
Soybean paste | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.54, 1.30) | Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Sodium (1 study) | ||||||||
Sodium | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.96 (0.57, 1.38) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (3 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 1117/105,493, mean age: 53.2, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.45, 0.70) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Coffee | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.17 (0.61, 2.25) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Coffee | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.44, 1.23) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Tea (2 studies) | ||||||||
Green tea | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.97 (0.49, 1.95) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Green tea | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.58 (0.27, 1.08) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (4 studies) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: meat diet | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 6.3 | 359/77,961, mean age: 52.3, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | HR | 1.05 (0.76, 1.47) | KoGES-HEXA Gem | 2020 [72] |
White rice diet | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.35 (1.00, 1.84) | ||||||
Other diet | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.30 (0.94, 1.80) | ||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 364/364, mean age: 47.8, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 3.68 (2.34, 5.80) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [73] |
RRR: glycemic index-based pattern, Glycemic load-based pattern | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.97 (1.14, 3.42) | National Cancer Center | 2013 [74] |
T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.66 (1.57, 4.49) | |||||||
Factor analysis: vegetables-seafood | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.14 (0.08, 0.25) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [75] |
Meat-Starch | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.69 (0.40, 1.16) | ||||||
Glycemic load (2 studies) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.50 (1.46, 4.31) | National Cancer Center | 2013 [74] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 3.27 (1.94, 5.50) | ||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.44 (0.23, 0.85) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [76] |
Glycemic load | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.85 (0.48, 1.50) | ||||||
Saturated fat (2 studies) | ||||||||
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.09, 0.56) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.65 (0.92, 2.45) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary retinol (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.72 (0.45, 1.16) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.23, 1.67) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.88 (0.26, 1.09) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency |
Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref[ | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.18 (0.75, 1.87) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Fruits and vegetables (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.87 (0.54, 1.42) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Total fruit | Case-control, 2008-2010 | 111/111, mean age: 45.6, men: 0.0 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.23, 1.52) | Hanyang University Hospital | 2013 [78] |
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.51 (0.15, 1.78) | ||||||
Raw vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.20 (0.07, 0.62) | ||||||
Carotenoid (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.22 (0.77, 1.93) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary vitamin C (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.17 (0.74, 1.85) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Red meat (1 study) | ||||||||
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥43 vs. <43 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.91 (0.61, 1.36) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Dietary iron (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.00 (0.63, 1.57) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary calcium (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.35, 0.89) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Sodium (1 study) | ||||||||
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 1.11 (0.72, 1.69) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (1 study) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 1,410/160,810,mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.59, 0.85) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (1 study) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: traditional balanced diet | Cross-sectional, 2004-2013 | 495/56,439, mean age: 53.6, men: 33.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥70th vs. <70th percentile (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.60, 1.05) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [79] |
Prudent diet | 1.45 (1.14, 1.83) | |||||||
Noodle/meat diet | 0.67 (0.51, 0.89) | |||||||
Rice-based diet | 0.84 (0.65, 1.08) | |||||||
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.60, 1.52) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr) | Diet assessment, amount or frequency |
Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.37, 1.02) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Carotenoid (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.66 (0.41, 1.06) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Dietary vitamin C (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.35, 0.92) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (1 study) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 689/105,921, mean age: 53.2 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.98 (0.75, 1.27) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Tea (1 study) | ||||||||
Tea | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.33 (0.85, 2.06) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (1 study) | ||||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Per 1 unit increase in DII | OR | 1.12 (1.00, 1.24) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, since 2006 | 221/670, mean age: 45.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.46 (0.17, 1.21) | 8 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (not specified) | 2020 [81] |
Glycemic load | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.50 (0.19, 1.30) | ||||||
Dietary retinol (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2006-2007 | 144/288, most frequent age range: 40-49 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.81 (0.45, 1.46) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2010 [82] |
Area of focus | Points |
---|---|
Study design | Longitudinal studies with sufficient statistical power are required to examine the temporal associations between diet and cancer risk |
Cancer type | Further studies on anatomical sites with a substantial burden of disease that have been understudied in relation to dietary factors are suggested (e.g., lung, prostate, and liver) [2] |
Confounder | Studies controlling for the major confounders with respect to specific cancer types should be considered |
Attributable risk | To estimate the attributable risk of diet on cancer in Korean population, combining cohort studies that share dietary assessment methods and conducting pooled analyses are advised when examining diet-cancer associations to further estimate the cancer burden attributable to dietary factors |
Life-course perspective | To consider the time-varying nature of nutrition, considering the role of diet during the early-life period, analyzing dietary pattern methods, and utilizing repeated measures of dietary assessment or recovery biomarkers of nutritional status are suggested [95] |
Biological mechanism | To elucidate the biological mechanisms in diet-cancer research, further investigations of molecular subtypes of cancer and the interaction between diet and exposomes (e.g., environment, genomics, metabolomics, or gut microbiota profiles) are warranted [95] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency | Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/756, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.6 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.24, 0.57) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [11] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.17, 0.79) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Fruits and vegetables (7 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.83 (0.35, 1.98) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Fruits | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.10 (0.55, 2.22) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Vegetables | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | 0.68 (0.27, 1.68) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.41, 0.85) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Vegetables | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.96 (0.68, 1.34) | ||||||
Fresh vegetables | Case-control, 1997-2003 | 421/632, mean age: 59.6, men: 65.5 | 84-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.92 (0.72, 1.17) | Chungbuk and Eulji University Hospital | 2005 [16] |
Fruits | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | >6 vs. <4/wk (reference) | OR | 0.30 (0.10, 0.70) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Raw vegetables | >5 vs. <3/wk (reference) | 0.20 (0.10, 0.50) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.67 (0.33, 1.39) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Vegetables | 0.64 (0.31, 1.32) | |||||||
Green vegetables | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.24 (0.14, 0.41) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Dietary carotenoids (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 286/286, mean age: 56.8, men: 66.4 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.97 (0.60, 1.56) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [20] |
Dietary total carotenoids | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.55, 1.15) | National Cancer Center | 2018 [21] |
Dietary α-carotene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 1.00 (0.70, 1.41) | ||||||
Dietary β-carotene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.22) | ||||||
Dietary β-cryptoxanthin | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.10) | ||||||
Dietary lutein/zeaxanthin | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.91 (0.64, 1.30) | ||||||
Dietary lycopene | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.60 (0.42, 0.85) | ||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.35 (0.16, 0.75) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary vitamin C (4 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 286/286, mean age: 56.8, men: 66.4 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.84 (0.52, 1.36) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [20] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.50, 1.00) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.27, 1.12) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 295/295, mean age: 49.3, men: 70.2 | 84-item FFQ, amount | >93.3 vs. ≤93.3 mg/day (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.52, 1.21) | Seoul National University Hospital and Asan Medical Center | 2005 [22] |
Dietary isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.70 (0.49, 1.00) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [23] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (5 studies) | ||||||||
Meat | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 0.88 (0.30, 2.60) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Meat | Cohort, 1996-1997, follow-up: 6-7 | 12,393/2,235,736, most frequent age range: 50-59, men: 63.2 | A single question, frequency | ≥4 vs. ≤1/wk | HR | 0.99 (0.93, 1.07) | Korean Health Insurance Cooperation | 2010 [24] |
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 1.16 (0.56, 2.41) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Total beef | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.67 (0.86, 3.27) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Total pork | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.94 (0.45, 1.97) | ||||||
Cooked beef | Case-control, 2000 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.40 (0.20, 0.80) | Asan Medical Center | 2002 [25] |
Grilled meat and fish (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fried meat and fish | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.73 (0.36, 1.48) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Charcoal grilled beef | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 2.11 (1.17, 3.82) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Charcoal grilled beef and pork | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.58 (0.80, 3.10) | ||||||
Fish (3 studies) | ||||||||
Fresh fish | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.46 (0.65, 3.28) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Raw fish | Case-control, 1997-2001 | 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.68 (0.46, 1.01) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Slices of raw fish | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.43 (0.04, 4.81) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Dairy products (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dairy product | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 1.30 (0.83, 2.06) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Dairy product | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.68 (0.34, 1.36) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Dietary iron (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary total iron | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 374/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.6 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.65 (0.45, 0.94) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [27] |
Dietary non-heme iron | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.64 (0.44, 0.92) | ||||||
Dietary heme iron | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.81 (0.56, 1.17) | ||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.77 (0.59, 1.02) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.49 (0.24, 1.01) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary calcium (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.43 (0.21, 0.90) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables and kimchi (7 studies) | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 307/307, mean age: 56.6, men: 67.1 | 103/116-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.52, 1.24) | Chungnam National and Hanyang University Hospital | 2021 [29] |
Pickled vegetables | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 10.3 | 81/4,432, mean age: 58.1, men: 38.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | Per 40 g/day increment | RR | 0.95 (0.80, 1.13) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2020 [30] |
Korean cabbage kimchi | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.11 (0.80, 1.55) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Radish kimchi | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.80 (0.57, 1.12) | ||||||
Chonggak kimchi | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.81 (0.58, 1.13) | ||||||
Kimchi | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 3.27 (2.44, 4.37) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥2 vs. <2/day (reference) | OR | 1.90 (1.30, 2.80) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1997-2001 | men: 61.9 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.51 (1.12, 2.44) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Baiechu kimchi | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.50 (0.25, 1.01) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Baiechu kimchi stew | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.62 (0.29, 1.35) | ||||||
Kkakduki | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.78 (0.85, 3.73) | ||||||
Dongchimi | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.96 (1.01, 3.83) | ||||||
Salted seafood and fish (4 studies) | ||||||||
Salted fish | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 12.9 | 296/11,026 mean age: 57.4, men: 39.1 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | Per 60 g/day increment | RR | 1.01 (0.63, 1.61) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2020 [30] |
Salt-fermented fish | Case-control, 1999 | 69/199, most frequent age range: 41-55, men: 61.9 | 161-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 2.40 (1.00, 5.70) | Asan Medical Center | 2003 [17] |
Salted seafood | Case-control, 1997-2001 | 214/214, mean age: 58.8, men: 67.5 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.67 (0.45, 1.00) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2003 [26] |
Salted fish and shellfish | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.78 (0.39, 1.56) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2002 [18] |
Fermented soy products (4 studies) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 377/754, mean age: 53.8, men: 65.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.08 (0.77, 1.51) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [23] |
Soybean paste | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 2.01 (0.52, 8.50) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Soybean paste | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.63 (1.24, 2.14) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Soybean paste stew | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5; men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 2.73 (1.34, 5.56) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Sodium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 46/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.8 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 2.34 (1.05, 5.19) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Sodium | Case-control, 2000-2005 | 471/471, mean age: 58.5, men: 66.9 | 89-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 2.30 (1.61, 3.30) | Chungbuk National and Eulji University Hospital | 2009 [28] |
Sodium | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.28, 1.11) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (2 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 976/161,244, mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Coffee | Cohort, 1993-2004, mean follow-up: 8.5 | 166/9,558, mean age: 57.6, men: 68.4 | 14-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1 time/day vs. almost never (reference) | RR | 0.94 (0.63, 1.41) | Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort | 2013 [14] |
Tea (2 studies) | ||||||||
Citrus tea | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.83 (0.59, 1.18) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [15] |
Tea | Case-control, 1997-1999 | 204/204, mean age: 59.5, men: 68.8 | 84-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/wk vs. <1/mo (reference) | OR | 0.32 (0.06, 1.61) | Chungbuk National University Hospital | 2000 [19] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (3 studies) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: Westernized | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.50, 1.16) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [32] |
Prudent | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.58 (0.41, 0.84) | ||||||
Index-based: hydrophilic ORAC | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 415/830, mean age: 53.7, men: 65.1 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.39, 0.82) | National Cancer Center | 2020 [33] |
Lipophilic ORAC | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.66 (0.45, 0.95) | ||||||
Total phenolics | 0.57 (0.39, 0.83) | |||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2011-2014 | 388/776, mean age: 53.3, men: 64.2 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.63 (1.15, 2.29) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [34] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2002-2006 | 307/307, mean age: 56.6, men: 67.1 | 102, 115-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.88 (1.18, 2.97) | Hanyang and Chungnam National University Hospital | 2022 [35] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.51 (1.53, 4.12) | ||||||
Saturated fat (1 study) | ||||||||
Saturated fat | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.75 (0.37, 1.53) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 1997-1998 | 136/136, mean age: 57.2, men: 68.4 | 109-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.26, 1.23) | Hanyang and Hallym University Hospital | 2005 [12] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency | Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.08, 0.56) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.20 (0.08, 0.51) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Fruits and vegetables (6 studies) | ||||||||
Total fruit and vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.60 (0.45, 0.79) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [38] |
Total fruit | 0.77 (0.58, 1.02) | |||||||
Total vegetables | 0.48 (0.36, 0.64) | |||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1(reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.27, 1.42) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Vegetables | 0.54 (0.23, 1.28) | |||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.85 (0.38, 1.92) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Fruits | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.38 (0.20, 0.74) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Vegetables | 0.30 (0.15, 0.62) | |||||||
Fruits 1 | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Men) 86/899, mean age: 46.3 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.22, 1.27) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fruits 2 | 0.36 (0.16, 0.84) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.97 (0.40, 2.35) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (fresh) | 1.33 (0.39, 4.52) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.75 (0.33, 1.71) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.92 (0.38, 2.23) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.64 (0.19, 2.10) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.65 (0.19, 2.16) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.84 (0.33, 2.18) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.45 (0.15, 1.39) | |||||||
Fruits 1 | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Women) 76/1,677, mean age: 47.2 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.13 (0.49, 2.61) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fruits 2 | 1.14 (0.54, 2.40) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.45 (0.15, 1.36) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.89 (0.31, 2.57) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.80 (0.30, 2.11) | |||||||
Green/yellow vegetables 2 (boiling) | 1.17 (0.49, 2.81) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (fresh) | 0.52 (0.11, 2.35) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (fresh) | 0.97 (0.28, 3.35) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 1 (boiling) | 0.46 (0.18, 1.16) | |||||||
Light color vegetables 2 (boiling) | 0.71 (0.27, 1.83) | |||||||
Vegetables | Case-control | 125/247, mean age: 56.5, men: 63.0 | Not specified, frequency | High vs. low (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.49, 1.31) | Ilsan-Paik Hospital | 2003 [40] |
Dietary carotenoids (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary lutein/zeaxanthin | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.25 (0.18, 0.36) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [41] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.17, 1.87) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary carotene | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.12 (0.06, 0.28) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary vitamin C (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.38 (0.14, 1.05) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 ((reference) | OR | 0.18 (0.08, 0.40) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary Isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.61 (0.46, 0.81) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [42] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (8 studies) | ||||||||
Meat | Cohort, 1996-1997, follow-up: 6.0-7.0 | 6444/2,241,685, most frequent age range: 40-49, men: 36.8 | A single question, frequency | ≥4 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | HR | 1.23 (1.13, 1.35) | Korean Health Insurance Corporation | 2011 [43] |
Meat | Case-control, 2003-2005 | 80/75, mean age: 57.1, men: 52.0 | A single question, frequency | ≥3/wk vs. none (reference) | OR | 1.7 (0.70, 4.20) | Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2006 [44] |
Meat | Case-control | 125/247, mean age: 56.5, men: 63.0 | Not specified, frequency | >2 vs. <2/wk (reference) | OR | 1.72 (1.12, 2.76) | Ilsan-Paik Hospital | 2003 [40] |
Red meat | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 703/1,406, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥100 vs. <100 g/day (reference) | OR | 0.66 (0.47, 0.92) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [45] |
Processed meat | ≥50 vs. <50 g/day (reference) | 0.78 (0.16, 3.93) | ||||||
Red meat | Case-control, 1995-2004 | 971/658, mean age: 58.2, men: 56.2 | 94-item FFQ, frequency | ≥5 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.29 (0.83, 2.01) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2019 [46] |
Red meat | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 7.33 (2.98, 18.06) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 1.31 (0.60, 2.61) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Beef | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.30, 1.28) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Pork | 1.70 (0.80, 3.58) | |||||||
Fish (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fish | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.05 (0.45, 2.40) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Fish | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1(reference) | OR | 2.01 (0.97, 4.18) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Anchovy | 0.35 (0.17, 0.74) | |||||||
Dairy products (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dairy | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 703/1,406, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥400 vs. <400 g/day (reference) | OR | 2.23 (1.53, 3.25) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [45] |
Milk and dairy product | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) OR 2.42 (1.10, 5.31) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] | ||
Milk | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.33 (0.18, 0.64) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] | |
Dietary iron (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.49 (0.18, 1.30) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary calcium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Cohort, 2004-2013 mean follow-up: 5.4 | 635/118,866, mean age: 52.7, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Per 200 g/day | HR | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [47] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Men) 624/1,872, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.16 (0.11, 0.24) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [48] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Women) 298/894, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.16 (0.09, 0.29) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [48] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.18 (0.07, 0.42) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Kimchi (2 studies) | ||||||||
Kimchi | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.32 (0.15, 0.65) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Men) 86/899, mean age: 46.3 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.31 (0.72, 2.38) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Kimchi | Case-control, 1994-1999 | (Women) 76/1,677, mean age: 47.2 | 51-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.99 (0.59, 1.68) | Our Lady of Mercy Hospital (Catholic University) | 2005 [39] |
Fermented soy products (1 study) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2007-2014 | (Men) 624/1,872, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.82 (1.35, 2.46) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [49] |
(Women) 298/894, most frequent age range: 50-59 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.22 (0.77, 1.91) | National Cancer Center | 2015 [49] | ||
Sodium (2 studies) | ||||||||
Sodium | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.39, 2.32) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 53/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.7 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 1.52 (0.75, 3.08) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (2 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | ≥3 cups/day vs. none (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.14, 0.33) | National Cancer Center | 2021 [50] |
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 521/161,699, mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.39, 0.72) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Tea (1 study) | ||||||||
Green tea | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 922/1,820, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.46, 0.76) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [51] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (5 studies) | ||||||||
Index-based: DIS | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 919/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 3.00 (2.19, 4.10) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [52] |
Index-based: EDIH | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.14 (0.81, 1.60) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [53] |
EDIR | 3.32 (2.32, 4.74) | |||||||
RRR: CRP-related pattern | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 695/1,846, mean age: 56.2, men: 67.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 9.98 (6.81, 14.62) | National Cancer Center | 2018 [54] |
Factor analysis: traditional diet | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.35 (0.27, 0.46) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [55] |
Westernized diet | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.35 (1.78, 3.09) | ||||||
Prudent diet | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.37 (0.28, 0.48) | ||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 923/1,846, mean age: 56.3, men: 67.7 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.16 (1.71, 2.73) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [56] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 695/1,401, mean age: 56.1, men: 68.3 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 5.44 (3.85, 7.68) | National Cancer Center | 2022 [57] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 4.43 (3.18, 6.15) | ||||||
Saturated fat (2 studies) | ||||||||
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.96 (1.24, 7.04) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.46 (0.21, 0.99) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control | 136/134, mean age: 53.3, men: 62.5 | 93-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.65 (0.31, 1.35) | Three university-affiliated hospitals in Seoul (not specified) | 2005 [37] |
Dietary vitamin D (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin D | Case-control, 2010-2011 | 150/116, most frequent age range: 60-69, men: 62.0 | 102-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.37, 1.67) | Gangnam Severance Hospital | 2015 [36] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of women | Diet assessment, amount or frequency | Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.14, 0.99) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.61 (0.31, 2.06) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Fruits and vegetables (5 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥1/day vs. ≤4-6/wk (reference) | HR | 1.22 (0.76, 1.97) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Light-colored vegetables | ≥4-6 vs. ≤2-3/wk (reference) | 0.87 (0.54, 1.38) | ||||||
Green-yellow vegetables | ≥1/day vs. ≤4-6/wk (reference) | 1.46 (0.91, 2.33) | ||||||
Total fruit and vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.34 (0.19, 0.62) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [61] |
Fruits | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.75 (0.44, 1.28) | ||||||
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.22 (0.12, 0.41) | ||||||
Non-pickled vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.09 (0.05, 0.18) | ||||||
Total fruit | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.52, 1.32) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Citrus fruit | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.74 (0.40, 1.28) | ||||||
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.76 (0.46, 1.23) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.15, 0.90) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Green-yellow color vegetables | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.83 (0.26, 2.68) | ||||||
Light color vegetables | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.58 (0.22, 1.53) | ||||||
Fruits | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | OR | 0.70 (0.60, 0.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Green vegetables | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | 0.60 (0.40, 1.00) | ||||||
White vegetables | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | 1.10 (0.80, 1.50) | ||||||
Dietary carotenoids (4 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.53, 1.20) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Per 500 ug/day | OR | 1.01 (0.98, 1.05) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [66] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.80 (0.33. 1.95) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.42 (0.25, 0.89) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary vitamin C (5 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >100 vs. ≤100 mg/day (reference) | HR | 0.95 (0.71, 1.26) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.07 (0.72, 1.60) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Per 10 mg/day | OR | 1.01 (0.99, 1.04) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [66] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.30, 1.93) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.37 (0.19, 0.84) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary isoflavone (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary isoflavone | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.81 (0.48, 1.38) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [69] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Meat (4 studies) | ||||||||
Low fat meat | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.64 (0.38, 1.09) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
High fat meat | 2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 0.79 (0.40, 1.53) | ||||||
Meat | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.50 (1.20, 1.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Grilled meat | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/mo (reference) | HR | 1.77 (1.09, 2.85) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Grill beef rib | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.96 (0.63, 2.02) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Bulgogi | 1.12 (0.73, 2.38) | |||||||
Grilled pork | 1.21 (0.89, 2.21) | |||||||
Grilled pork belly | 1.11 (0.81, 2.15) | |||||||
Pork cutlet | 0.91 (0.78, 2.61) | |||||||
Grilled ham | 0.87 (0.71, 2.18) | |||||||
Fish (5 studies) | ||||||||
Bony fish | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | HR | 1.14 (0.71, 1.83) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Total fish | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.32, 0.96) | National Cancer Center | 2009 [70] |
Lean fish | 1.21 (0.72, 2.04) | |||||||
Fatty fish | 0.23 (0.13, 0.42) | |||||||
White flesh fish | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.64 (0.52–5.16) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Blue flesh fish | ≥2-3 vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | 1.32 (0.74, 2.36) | ||||||
Fish | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | ≥1 vs. <1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.50 (1.20, 1.90) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Fish meat | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.87, 2.44) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Raw croaker | 0.51 (0.35, 1.19) | |||||||
Grilled yellow croaker | 0.89 (0.21, 1.93) | |||||||
Tuna canned | 0.85 (0.39, 1.39) | |||||||
Dairy products (5 studies) | ||||||||
Milk | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 6.3 | 359/77,961, mean age: 52.3, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | ≥1/day vs. <1/wk (reference) | HR | 0.78 (0.59, 1.04) | KoGES-HEXA Gem | 2020 [71] |
Dairy food | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥4-6 vs. ≤2-3/wk (reference) | HR | 1.32 (0.83, 2.11) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Milk, yogurt | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.19 (0.52, 2.70) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Milk | Case-control, 1995-2002 | 819/713, mean age: 47.4, women: 100 | FFQ, frequency | Everyday vs. <1/day (reference) | OR | 0.90 (0.80, 1.20) | Seoul University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center | 2003 [64] |
Milk | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.51 (0.34, 2.20) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Yogurt | 1.05 (0.39, 2.19) | |||||||
Cheese | 0.51 (0.43, 2.23) | |||||||
Dietary iron (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >14 vs. ≤14 mg/day (reference) for 30-49 yr, >8 vs. ≤8 mg/day (reference) for 50-74 yr, and >7 vs. ≤7 mg/day (reference) for ≥75 yr | HR | 0.74 (0.52, 1.06) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1(reference) | OR | 0.76 (0.27, 2.16) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary iron | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.53, 1.72) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Dietary calcium (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 4.9 | 232/40,200, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | >700 vs. ≤700 mg/day (reference) for 30-49 yr, >800 vs. ≤800 mg/day (reference) for ≥50 yr | HR | 1.12 (0.72, 1.76) | KoGES-HEXA | 2022 [68] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.33 (0.13, 0.86) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.85 (0.27, 1.30) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables and Kimchi (2 studies) | ||||||||
Pickled vegetables | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 2.47 (1.45, 4.21) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [61] |
Cabbage kimchi | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.83 (0.57, 1.59) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Radish kimchi | 0.77 (0.45, 1.27) | |||||||
Salted vegetables and fish (1 study) | ||||||||
Salted vegetables and seafood | Cohort, 2002-2007, mean follow-up: 9.5 | 72/4,974, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 16-item brief FFQ, frequency | ≥2 vs. ≤1/day (reference) | HR | 0.98 (0.61, 1.58) | National Cancer Center | 2017 [60] |
Fermented soy products (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fermented soy paste | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 358/360, mean age: 48.1, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.31 (0.17, 0.56) | National Cancer Center Hanyang and | 2010 [69] |
Soybean paste | Case-control, 1999-2003 | 359/708, mean age: 49.1, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.54, 1.30) | Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2007 [62] |
Sodium (1 study) | ||||||||
Sodium | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.96 (0.57, 1.38) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (3 studies) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 1117/105,493, mean age: 53.2, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.56 (0.45, 0.70) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Coffee | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 1.17 (0.61, 2.25) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Coffee | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.53 (0.44, 1.23) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Tea (2 studies) | ||||||||
Green tea | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 22-item FFQ, frequency | 1/day vs. ≤1/wk (reference) | OR | 0.97 (0.49, 1.95) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2007 [63] |
Green tea | Case-control, 1998-1999 | 108/121, most frequent age range: 40-49, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.58 (0.27, 1.08) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2000 [59] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (4 studies) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: meat diet | Cohort, 2004-2013, mean follow-up: 6.3 | 359/77,961, mean age: 52.3, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | HR | 1.05 (0.76, 1.47) | KoGES-HEXA Gem | 2020 [72] |
White rice diet | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.35 (1.00, 1.84) | ||||||
Other diet | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 1.30 (0.94, 1.80) | ||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 364/364, mean age: 47.8, women: 100 | 106-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 3.68 (2.34, 5.80) | National Cancer Center | 2019 [73] |
RRR: glycemic index-based pattern, Glycemic load-based pattern | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 1.97 (1.14, 3.42) | National Cancer Center | 2013 [74] |
T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 2.66 (1.57, 4.49) | |||||||
Factor analysis: vegetables-seafood | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 0.14 (0.08, 0.25) | National Cancer Center | 2010 [75] |
Meat-Starch | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 0.69 (0.40, 1.16) | ||||||
Glycemic load (2 studies) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2007-2008 | 357/357, mean age: 48.2, women: 100 | 103-item FFQ, amount | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | OR | 2.50 (1.46, 4.31) | National Cancer Center | 2013 [74] |
Glycemic load | T3 vs. T1 (reference) | 3.27 (1.94, 5.50) | ||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, 2004-2006 | 362/362, mean age: 46.1, women: 100 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.44 (0.23, 0.85) | Samsung Medical Center | 2010 [76] |
Glycemic load | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.85 (0.48, 1.50) | ||||||
Saturated fat (2 studies) | ||||||||
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.22 (0.09, 0.56) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Saturated fatty acids | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.65 (0.92, 2.45) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary retinol (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2001-2003 | 512/512, mean age: 48.8, women: 100 | 56-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.72 (0.45, 1.16) | Seoul National University Hospital, Asan Medical Center, and Ewha Womans University Hospital | 2012 [65] |
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2004-2005 | 103/159, mean age: 50.1, women: 100 | 74-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.23, 1.67) | Daegu-area hospital for cases and community controls | 2008 [58] |
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 1999-2000 | 224/250, most frequent age range: 40-59, women: 100 | 98-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.88 (0.26, 1.09) | Hanyang and Soonchunhyang University Hospitals | 2003 [67] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year, follow-up duration (yr) | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr), % of men | Diet assessment, amount or frequency | Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref[ | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.18 (0.75, 1.87) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Fruits and vegetables (2 studies) | ||||||||
Fruits and vegetables | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥600 vs. <600 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.87 (0.54, 1.42) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Total fruit | Case-control, 2008-2010 | 111/111, mean age: 45.6, men: 0.0 | 121-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.59 (0.23, 1.52) | Hanyang University Hospital | 2013 [78] |
Total vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.51 (0.15, 1.78) | ||||||
Raw vegetables | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.20 (0.07, 0.62) | ||||||
Carotenoid (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.22 (0.77, 1.93) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary vitamin C (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.17 (0.74, 1.85) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Meat, fish, and dairy products | ||||||||
Red meat (1 study) | ||||||||
Red meat | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥43 vs. <43 g/day (reference) | HR | 0.91 (0.61, 1.36) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Dietary iron (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary iron | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 1.00 (0.63, 1.57) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary calcium (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary calcium | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.55 (0.35, 0.89) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Preservation and processing of foods | ||||||||
Sodium (1 study) | ||||||||
Sodium | Cohort, 2004-2008, median follow-up: 7.0 | 136/7,637, mean age: 48.4, men: 54.6 | 3-day DR, amount | ≥4,000 vs. <4,000 mg/day (reference) | HR | 1.11 (0.72, 1.69) | National Cancer Center | 2014 [13] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (1 study) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 1,410/160,810,mean age: 53.2, men: 34.3 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.71 (0.59, 0.85) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (1 study) | ||||||||
Factor analysis: traditional balanced diet | Cross-sectional, 2004-2013 | 495/56,439, mean age: 53.6, men: 33.8 | 106-item FFQ, amount | ≥70th vs. <70th percentile (reference) | OR | 0.79 (0.60, 1.05) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [79] |
Prudent diet | 1.45 (1.14, 1.83) | |||||||
Noodle/meat diet | 0.67 (0.51, 0.89) | |||||||
Rice-based diet | 0.84 (0.65, 1.08) | |||||||
Dietary retinol (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2007-2014 | 113/226, mean age: 53.7, men: 0.0 | 106-item FFQ, amount | Upper vs. lower median (reference) | OR | 0.95 (0.60, 1.52) | National Cancer Center | 2016 [77] |
Dietary factors | Study design, enrollment year | Sample size (cases/controls, non-cases), age (yr) | Diet assessment, amount or frequency | Risk estimate |
Sources | Year [Ref] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Type | Effect (95% CI) | ||||||
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables | ||||||||
Dietary fiber (1 study) | ||||||||
Dietary fiber | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.62 (0.37, 1.02) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Carotenoid (3 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary β-carotene | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.66 (0.41, 1.06) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Dietary vitamin C (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary vitamin C | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.57 (0.35, 0.92) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Non-alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
Coffee (1 study) | ||||||||
Coffee | Cross-sectional, 2004-2016 | 689/105,921, mean age: 53.2 | 106-item FFQ, frequency | >60 cups/mo vs. no drink (reference) | OR | 0.98 (0.75, 1.27) | KoGES-HEXA | 2021 [31] |
Tea (1 study) | ||||||||
Tea | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 1.33 (0.85, 2.06) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Other dietary exposures | ||||||||
Dietary pattern (1 study) | ||||||||
Index-based: DII | Case-control, 2006-2010 | 229/729, mean age: 44.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Per 1 unit increase in DII | OR | 1.12 (1.00, 1.24) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2019 [80] |
Glycemic load (1 study) | ||||||||
Glycemic index | Case-control, since 2006 | 221/670, mean age: 45.2 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.46 (0.17, 1.21) | 8 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (not specified) | 2020 [81] |
Glycemic load | Q5 vs. Q1 (reference) | 0.50 (0.19, 1.30) | ||||||
Dietary retinol (2 studies) | ||||||||
Dietary retinol | Case-control, 2006-2007 | 144/288, most frequent age range: 40-49 | 95-item FFQ, amount | Q4 vs. Q1 (reference) | OR | 0.81 (0.45, 1.46) | 6 university-affiliated hospitals in Korea (Korea, Yonsei, Chungnam, Gachon, Inha, and Ajou University) | 2010 [82] |
Dietary exposure | Outcome | WCRF/AICR evidence level | No. of studies | Heterogeneity, I2 (%) | Model | Summary OR or RR (95% CI) | p for Egger’s test |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fruits and vegetables | Gastric cancer | - | 7 | 82.2 | Random-effects | 0.59 (0.40, 0.86) | 0.177 |
Fruits | Gastric cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 5 | 54.7 | Random-effects | 0.72 (0.51, 1.01) | 0.998 |
Vegetables | Gastric cancer | - | 6 | 84.6 | Random-effects | 0.54 (0.32, 0.90) | 0.227 |
Dietary vitamin C | Gastric cancer | - | 4 | 0.0 | Fixed-effect | 0.74 (0.59, 0.92) | 0.904 |
Pickled vegetables and kimchi | Gastric cancer | Probable, risk factor | 7 | 91.6 | Random-effects | 1.31 (0.90, 1.90) | 0.030 |
Salted seafood and fish | Gastric cancer | Probable, risk factor | 4 | 59.2 | Random-effects | 0.96 (0.62, 1.51) | 0.184 |
Fermented soy products | Gastric cancer | Probable, risk factor | 4 | 56.3 | Random-effects | 1.56 (1.08, 2.27) | 0.500 |
Meat | Gastric cancer | - | 5 | 49.3 | Fixed-effect | 0.99 (0.92, 1.06) | 0.599 |
Fruits and vegetables | Colorectal cancer | - | 6 | 51.4 | Random-effects | 0.63 (0.49, 0.80) | 0.665 |
Fruits | Colorectal cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 4 | 23.2 | Fixed-effect | 0.69 (0.56, 0.86) | 0.879 |
Vegetables | Colorectal cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 5 | 62.4 | Random-effects | 0.58 (0.42, 0.80) | 0.820 |
Meat | Colorectal cancer | - | 8 | 77.8 | Random-effects | 1.35 (0.99, 1.85) | 0.993 |
Red meat | Colorectal cancer | Probable, risk factor | 5 | 84.8 | Random-effects | 1.39 (0.76, 2.57) | 0.092 |
Fruits and vegetables | Breast cancer | - | 5 | 77.0 | Random-effects | 0.72 (0.53, 0.98) | 0.852 |
Fruits | Breast cancer | - | 4 | 56.4 | Random-effects | 0.77 (0.55, 1.08) | 0.988 |
Vegetables | Breast cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 4 | 0.0 | Fixed-effect | 0.93 (0.78, 1.12) | 0.599 |
Dietary carotenoids | Breast cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 4 | 65.8 | Random-effects | 0.79 (0.55, 1.12) | 0.264 |
Dietary vitamin C | Breast cancer | - | 5 | 47.5 | Fixed-effect | 1.01 (0.98, 1.03) | 0.331 |
Meat | Breast cancer | - | 4 | 79.6 | Random-effects | 1.17 (0.83, 1.65) | 0.583 |
Fish | Breast cancer | - | 5 | 86.1 | Random-effects | 1.00 (0.66, 1.51) | 0.116 |
Dairy products | Breast cancer | Limited-suggestive, protective factor | 5 | 27.5 | Fixed-effect | 0.88 (0.76, 1.02) | 0.567 |
Area of focus | Points |
---|---|
Study design | Longitudinal studies with sufficient statistical power are required to examine the temporal associations between diet and cancer risk |
Cancer type | Further studies on anatomical sites with a substantial burden of disease that have been understudied in relation to dietary factors are suggested (e.g., lung, prostate, and liver) [2] |
Confounder | Studies controlling for the major confounders with respect to specific cancer types should be considered |
Attributable risk | To estimate the attributable risk of diet on cancer in Korean population, combining cohort studies that share dietary assessment methods and conducting pooled analyses are advised when examining diet-cancer associations to further estimate the cancer burden attributable to dietary factors |
Life-course perspective | To consider the time-varying nature of nutrition, considering the role of diet during the early-life period, analyzing dietary pattern methods, and utilizing repeated measures of dietary assessment or recovery biomarkers of nutritional status are suggested [95] |
Biological mechanism | To elucidate the biological mechanisms in diet-cancer research, further investigations of molecular subtypes of cancer and the interaction between diet and exposomes (e.g., environment, genomics, metabolomics, or gut microbiota profiles) are warranted [95] |
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference number; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DR, dietary record; ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity; DII, dietary inflammatory index; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference number; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DR, dietary record; DIS, dietary inflammation score; EDIH, empirical dietary index for hyperinsulinemia; EDIR, empirical dietary index for insulin resistance; RRR, reduced rank regression; DII, dietary inflammatory index; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference number; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DII, dietary inflammatory index; RRR, reduced rank regression; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference number; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DR, dietary record; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; DII, dietary inflammatory index; KoGES-HEXA, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Health Examinee.
WCRF/AICR, World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research; OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; CI, confidence interval.